Carroll's Model of School Learning

In 1963, John Carroll proposed a model to account for school learning. His major premise was that school learning is a function of time. To be more specific, Carroll proposed that
               School Learning = f(time spent/time needed).

In 1963, John Carroll proposed a model to account for school learning. His major premise was that school learning is a function of time. To be more specific, Carroll proposed that School Learning = f(time spent/time needed).Carroll defined time spent as a function of (i.e., resulting from or composed of) opportunity and perseverance. The measure he proposed for opportunity was allocated time or the amount of time the classroom teacher made available for school learning. The measure Carroll proposed for perseverance was engagement rate or the percentage of the allocated time that students were actually on task. Allocated time was multiplied by engagement rate to produce engaged time or time on task which is defined as the number of minutes per school day that students were actually engaged in school work.

Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place.

Affective Domain

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:

Teacher-Parent Communication

Parents can and will become involved in their children education when teachers take the time to reach out to them. This can be difficult and time-consuming, but well worth the effort. Some of the things teachers can do to engage parent are:

Parent Surveys

Reach out to the parents of students by sending home parent surveys during the first week of school. These surveys ask about their child and their goals for this year. Acknowledge the fact that they know their child best and help the parents see that we value their input while providing teachers with information we wouldn’t have known otherwise. When the parents come in for their first conference, use the completed survey to "break the ice" and to stimulate discussion. Send home parent surveys three weeks into the year asking parents to comment on how their child is adjusting to class and inviting them to relate any concerns they might have.

  Positive Phone Calls

 Make a positive phone call to each house at some point during the first nine weeks. Print out a list of student names in order to keep track and tell them about a good grade or some other success that their child experienced at school. This helps the parents feel more comfortable because they don't have to cringe every time they get a call from their child's teacher and lets the children know that you are communicating with their parents on a regular basis. A positive relationship with a parent can make a huge difference if problems arise later in the year.

Class Newsletters

Send home a newsletter every two weeks. In this newsletter, discuss current units of study and any reminders necessary. Include tips for parents on helping their children in math, reading, and writing and an invitation to visit our classroom. Get students involved in writing the newsletter, which allows them to improve their editing and writing skills.

Flexible Scheduling for Conferences

Make yourself available for conferences after five o’clock a couple of days a month and encourage parents to bring their younger children along if they have trouble getting a sitter. If you can't stay late or come in early, schedule a phone conference.

PYGMALIAN EFFECT

The main idea concerning The Pygmalion Effect is that if you believe that someone is capable of achieving greatness, then that person will indeed achieve greatness. In other words, believing in potential simply creates potential. The Pygmalion Effect may occur all around us whether it be in the workforce, at schools or even at home. If for instance, you tell a new teacher at a grammar school - whom has no previous experience with her new to be students-that a particular young student of hers is extremely bright and clever, the new teacher will automatically be more supportive, more encouraging, teach more challenging material, be patient and allow that student more time to answer questions, and provide extra feedback to that student. The student receiving all this attention and absorbing in the teacher's belief learns more and is as a result, better in school. Whether the child is bright or not before hand does not necessarily matter. The main concern is that this new teacher entirely believes that this student is bright and clever. This is also the case for managers and workers.

HAWTHORNE EFFECT

A term referring to the tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment. Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables. In a collaborative effort, the effect can enhance results by creating a sense of teamwork and common purpose. In other words, if participants know they are a part of an experiment that can lead to improved efforts of the people involved, this creates a distortion of research results caused by the response of participants to the special attention they receive from researchers.  Production increased not because of actual changes in working conditions introduced by the teacher, but because teachers demonstrated an interest in such improvements often referred as (self fulfilling prophecy). “Experiments included altering lighting levels on the shop floor. Productivity increased when the lighting level was increased and increased again when lighting levels were reduced”.

Multiple Intelligence

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are:

• Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
• Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
• Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
• Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
• Musical intelligence ("music smart")
• Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
• Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
• Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence.  Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live.

EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual. The motivating factors are external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades. These rewards provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide.
An extrinsically motivated person will work on a task even when they have little interest in it because of the anticipated satisfaction they will get from some reward. For example, an extrinsically motivated person who dislikes math may work hard on a math equation because they want the reward for completing it.                

 Intrinsic motivation is being motivated by internal factors, as opposed to the external drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation drives individual to do things just for the fun of it, or because I believe it is a good or right thing to do. For example most people's hobbies are intrinsically motivated